Medieval women's early involvement in manuscript production suggested by lapis lazuli identification in dental calculus.

During the European Middle Ages, the opening of long-distance Asian trade routes introduced exotic goods, including ultramarine, a brilliant blue pigment produced from lapis lazuli stone mined only in Afghanistan. Rare and as expensive as gold, this pigment transformed the European color palette, but little is known about its early trade or use. Here, we report the discovery of lapis lazuli pigment preserved in the dental calculus of a religious woman in Germany radiocarbon-dated to the 11th or early 12th century. The early use of this pigment by a religious woman challenges widespread assumptions about its limited availability in medieval Europe and the gendered production of illuminated texts.

How people used ochre at Rose Cottage Cave, South Africa: Sixty thousand years of evidence from the Middle Stone Age.

We describe colour, hardness, grain size, geological type and surface modifications of ochre pieces excavated, first by Malan and later by Harper, from the Middle Stone Age (MSA) of Rose Cottage Cave, 96, 000 to 30, 000 years ago. Soft, bright-red shales are abundant, and most ochre has clayey or silty grain sizes. The post-Howiesons Poort layers contain the most ochre pieces, but the Howiesons Poort layers have the highest frequency of ochre per sediment volume. The pre-Howiesons Poort layers have the highest utilization rate. Use-traces include rubbing, grinding, combined grinding and rubbing, and rare instances of scoring. The processing techniques are proxies for ochre use. Rubbing transfers red ochre powder directly onto soft surfaces, such as human skin, or animal hide. This is appropriate when skin colouring and marking or skin protection (for example from sun, insects or bacteria) is the purpose. Grinding produces ochre powder that can be used for a variety of tasks. It can be mixed with water or other products to create paint, cosmetics or adhesives. Multiple uses of ochre powder and ochre pieces are therefore implied at Rose Cottage and changes through time are apparent.

Asbestos in toys: an exemplary case.

OBJECTIVES: DAS was an artificial clay which, once molded, hardened at room temperature. It was largely used as a toy between 1963 and 1975 in Italy, Netherlands, Germany, UK and Norway. This case report describes and reports the presence of asbestos in DAS. METHODS: We investigated the presence of asbestos in DAS using light and electron microscopy on samples of the original material. We searched administrative documents at the State Archive of Turin and conducted interviews with past employees on annual production, suppliers, and purchasers. RESULTS: The analytical tests confirmed the presence of asbestos fibers in DAS: about 30% of its composition. The documents found at the State Archive confirmed the annual purchase of hundreds tons of raw asbestos from the Amiantifera di Balangero, the Italian asbestos mine. DAS was found to be used also within craftsmanship. CONCLUSIONS: Asbestos fibers in DAS may have caused exposure to production workers and a variety of users, including artists, teachers, and children. Over 13 years, about 55 million packs of DAS were produced and sold. The number of users is difficult to estimate but may have been in the order of millions. In Italy, a specific question on the use of DAS has been included in a routinely used mesothelioma questionnaire. As DAS was exported to other countries, our findings suggest that mesothelioma patients should be asked about their past use of DAS, in particular individuals not reporting a clear past asbestos exposure. Additionally, this discovery shows the incompleteness of records on asbestos uses and suggests to test items, including toys, imported from countries where asbestos is not forbidden.

FT-IR and micro-Raman spectroscopic studies of archaeological potteries recently excavated in Poompuhar, Tamilnadu, India.

Ancient ceramics are the abundant artifacts that give the knowledge of the past societies. Therefore it is of great importance to acquire knowledge about the chemical composition of the clay in archaeological artifacts. The spectroscopic techniques represent one of the most powerful tools to investigate the structure of all the materials and chemical composition of the cultural object like potteries. An attempt has been made in the present work to estimate the firing temperature of the archaeological pottery shreds excavated from the archaeological site Poompuhar in the state of Tamilnadu in India. The firing temperature of the archaeological pottery shreds were estimated by recording the corresponding FT-IR spectra in the range 4000-450 cm(-1) and Micro Raman spectra in the range 1800-400 cm(-1). The clay mineral present in the pottery samples are identified through FT-IR method and was confirmed with Micro Raman spectroscopy as both are complement to each other. The major primary mineral present in the samples is Kaolinite and the secondary mineral present is quartz and the accessory minerals present in the samples are hematite, magnetite and feldspar. The results of Raman spectra showed that the potters of this site used a mixture of clays as raw materials. The firing temperature for some of the samples did not exceed 800°C which suggests the use of open fire.

Analysis of wall plasters and natural sediments from the Neolithic town of Çatalhöyük (Turkey) by a range of analytical techniques.

Wall plaster sequences from the Neolithic town of Çatalhöyük have been analysed and compared to three types of natural sediment found in the vicinity of the site, using a range of analytical techniques. Block samples containing the plaster sequences were removed from the walls of several different buildings on the East Mound. Sub-samples were examined by IR spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction and X-ray fluorescence to determine the overall mineralogical and elemental composition, whilst thin sections were studied using optical polarising microscopy, IR Microscopy and Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive X-ray analysis. The results of this study have shown that there are two types of wall plaster found in the sequences and that the sediments used to produce these were obtained from at least two distinct sources. In particular, the presence of clay, calcite and magnesian calcite in the foundation plasters suggested that these were prepared predominantly from a marl source. On the other hand, the finishing plasters were found to contain dolomite with a small amount of clay and no calcite, revealing that softlime was used in their preparation. Whilst marl is located directly below and around Çatalhöyük, the nearest source of softlime is 6.5km away, an indication that the latter was important to the Neolithic people, possibly due to the whiter colour (5Y 8/1) of this sediment. Furthermore, the same two plaster types were found on each wall of Building 49, the main building studied in this research, and in all five buildings investigated, suggesting that the use of these sources was an established practice for the inhabitants of several different households across the site.

Application of thermogravimetry-differential thermal analysis (TG-DTA) technique to study the ancient potteries from Vellore dist, Tamilnadu, India.

The characterization of archeological ceramic and pottery can be studied for the determination of firing temperature and the presence of raw materials by thermal analysis. Clay minerals are the main material for the production of ceramic and pottery and show some characteristic reactions such as dehydration, dehydroxylation and transformation. This is key point of criteria for the elucidation of firing temperature and raw material analysis. In the present work, DTA-TG, XRD and EDXRF technique are applied on representative potsherds from Vellore dist., Tamilnadu, India to derive the information about the production technology, raw materials and firing temperature. From the analysis, all the samples were considered to be fired from 800°C to 900°C and organic material might be added intestinally as a binder in the preparation of pottery.

Armenian bole: a historical medicinal clay.

The medical use of earths and minerals is probably as old as the history of mankind. Particular types of clays and earths are still being used worldwide as therapeutic agents in the folk medicine of different countries. From the 19th century, the medicaments included in countries' pharmacopeias whose exact pharmacological activity or the chemistry of their active components was not known gradually decreased in number, despite their popularity among patients. With today's analytical armamentarium it may be time to reconsider returning some of those compounds to pharmacopeias. By using modern techniques in the past two decades, researchers have studied the active components of healing clays and their pharmacological properties. Many of them possess valuable therapeutic properties which could be used in modern medicine in pharmaceutical dosage forms. Our knowledge about the medical substances that our ancestors used through centuries could be used today as an evidence base for further clinical and pharmacological research. One of these substances is Armenian bole. In this work we studied the historical perspective of its therapeutic use in different countries. Also a sample sold in the market in Iran was purchased and X-ray diffraction analysis was performed on it to find out its chemical composition.

A systematic examination of colour development in synthetic ultramarine according to historical methods.

A number of historical texts are investigated to ascertain the optimum conditions for the preparation of synthetic ultramarine, using preparative methods that would have been available to alchemists and colour chemists of the nineteenth century. The effect of varying the proportion of sulphur in the starting material on the colour of the final product is investigated. The optimum preparation involves heating a homogenised, pelletised mixture of kaolin (100 parts), sodium carbonate (100 parts), bitumen emulsion (or any 'sticky' carbon source) (12 parts) and sulphur (60 parts) at 750°C for ca. 4 hours. At this stage the ingress of air should be limited. The sample is allowed to cool in the furnace to 500°C, the ingress of air is permitted and additional sulphur (30 parts) is introduced before a second calcination step is undertaken at 500°C for two hours. The products obtained from the optimum synthesis have CIE ranges of x  = 0.2945-0.3125, y  = 0.2219-0.2617, Y  = 0.4257-0.4836, L* = 3.8455-4.3682, a*  = 4.2763-7.6943, b* = -7.6772-(-)3.3033, L  = 3.8455-4.3682, C = 5.3964-10.8693, h = 315.0636-322.2562. The values are calculated using UV/visible near infrared spectra using Lazurite [1], under D65 illumination, and the 1931 2° observer.

Portuguese tin-glazed earthenware from the 17th century. Part 1: pigments and glazes characterization.

Two sherds representative of the Portuguese faience production of the first and second halves of the 17th century were studied carefully with the use of non-invasive spectroscopies, namely: Ground State Diffuse Reflectance Absorption (GSDR), micro-Raman, Fourier-Transform Infrared (FT-IR), Laser Induced Luminescence (LIL) and Proton Induced X-ray (PIXE). These results were compared with the ones obtained for a Chinese Ming porcelain, Wanli period (16th/beginning of the 17th centuries), which served as an influence for the initial Lisbon's faience production. By combining information of the different non-destructive spectroscopic techniques used in this work, it was possible to conclude that: Co(3)O(4) (Co II and Co III) can be found in the silicate matrix and is the blue pigment in the "Especieiro" sample (1st half of the 17th C.). Cobalt olivine silicate (Co(2)SiO(4), Co II only) was clearly identified as the blue pigment in "Aranhões" sample (2nd half of the 17th C.) - 824 cm(-1) band in the micro-Raman-spectrum. Cobalt aluminate (CoAl(2)O(4), Co II only) is the blue pigment in the Wanli plate - 203 and 512 cm(-1) bands in the micro-Raman spectrum. The blue pigment in the 1st half 17th century of Lisbon's production was obtained by addition of a cobalt ore in low concentrations, which gives no specific Raman signature, because of complete dissolution in the glass. However, in most cases of the 2nd half 17th century, the Raman signature was quite evident, from a cobalt silicate. These findings point to the use of higher temperature kilns in the second case.

Gene expression changes after exposure to six-mix in a mouse model.

The exposure of Libby MT residents to amphibole-contaminated vermiculite is well known. To explore the gene-environment interactions in the development of asbestos-related diseases (ARD), a mouse model of asbestos exposure using Six-mix (a combination of amphibole fibers gathered from six sites at the Libby vermiculite mine), crocidolite asbestos, or saline as a negative control was used to determine both gene expression responses by using mouse 10,000 oligonucleotide array and to visualize these changes histologically. Mice were sacrificed and whole lungs harvested for histology and microarray analysis six months following exposure via intratracheal instillation. Using an arbitrary cutoff of 1.25-fold change, genes whose RNA expression levels were specifically altered in response to the different amphibole exposures were grouped into categories by a gene ontology analysis program, GoMiner. Our hypothesis was that assessment of asbestos-responsive genes would provide a better understanding of response mechanisms. These experiments have provided new candidates for genes involved in the asbestos response pathways.

[Terra Sigillata--a remedy used through millenniums]. / Terra Sigillata--et laegemiddel igennem årtusinder.

Terra Sigillata is clay. It has been used as medicine for different diseases through Centuries even millenniums. This specific clay has been used from Hippocrates until the 20th cent. more or less for the same kind of diseases, mostly various poisonings. The earliest known clay in use as medicine came from the Greek island Lemnos. Later on, when the clay became a very popular medicine, it was manufactured as tablets all over Europe where this specific type of clay was available. But Terra Sigillata is also a type of Roman Samian ware, used in the widespread Roman Empire.

Raman spectroscopic study of ancient South African domestic clay pottery.

The technique of Raman spectroscopy was used to examine the composition of ancient African domestic clay pottery of South African origin. One sample from each of four archaeological sites including Rooiwal, Lydenburg, Makahane and Graskop was studied. Normal dispersive Raman spectroscopy was found to be the most effective analytical technique in this study. XRF, XRD and FT-IR spectroscopy were used as complementary techniques. All representative samples contained common features, which were characterised by kaolin (Al2Si2O5(OH)5), illite (KAl4(Si7AlO20)(OH)4), feldspar (K- and NaAlSi3O8), quartz (alpha-SiO2), hematite (alpha-Fe2O3), montmorillonite (Mg3(Si,Al)4(OH)2 x 4.5 5H(2)O[Mg]0.35), and calcium silicate (CaSiO3). Gypsum (CaSO4 x 2H2O) and calcium carbonates (most likely calcite, CaCO3) were detected by Raman spectroscopy in Lydenburg, Makahane and Graskop shards. Amorphous carbon (with accompanying phosphates) was observed in the Raman spectra of Lydenburg, Rooiwal and Makahane shards, while rutile (TiO(2)) appeared only in Makahane shard. The Raman spectra of Lydenburg and Rooiwal shards further showed the presence of anhydrite (CaSO4). The results showed that South African potters used a mixture of clays as raw materials. The firing temperature for most samples did not exceed 800 degrees C, which suggests the use of open fire. The reddish brown and grayish black colours were likely due to hematite and amorphous carbon, respectively.

Deposits of different origin in the lungs of the 5,300-year-old Tyrolean Iceman.

Deposits in the lung of the Late Neolithic Tyrolean Iceman were studied with a combination of different methods of analytical electron microscopy. Numerous anthracotic areas with plentiful inhaled soot particles were found in the lung; these most probably derived from open fires in houses. Between the soot particles tiny mineral crystals (mainly muscovite) were identified, which may indicate that the Tyrolean Iceman lived in a muscoviterich area. Furthermore, illite, quartz, and a plagioclase (andesine), which are also minerals in the crystalline rocks of the Otztal Alps, were found. Additionally, organic material, which may represent inhaled threshing residues, was present in the anthracotic areas. As threshing residues and seeds in husk also were detected in the Iceman's belongings, some kind of rustic occupation seems probable. Outside of the anthracotic areas, vivianite and hydroxyapatite crystals were detected. Because of their separate location, and as vivianite is also described in the Iceman's skin, these minerals seem to have crystallized during his 5,300 years of storage in the high mountains.

Clay eating.

In the report "Transfection of v-ras(H) DNA into MCF-7 human breast cancer cells bypasses dependence on estrogen for tumorigenicity" by A. Kasid et al. (10 May, p. 725), a line connecting two sentences was inadvertently omitted from the text. On p. 726, column 1, line 9, the sentence beginning "Densitometric scans of the blots " should have continued as follows: "showed that the transfectants expressed ras(H) RNA at levels 10 to 12 times higher than wild-type MCF-7 cells (Fig. 1E) or MCF-7(gpt) cells. Wild-type MCF-7 cells contained a low level of endogenous c-ras(H) RNA and neither its expression nor that of the exogenously acquired v-ras(H) gene was altered by E(2) treatment (Fig. 1E)."